Resources / References

Banks, J.A. (2008). An introduction to multicultural education (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

This book does exactly as it says--lays out the basics of multicultural education.  It discusses and presents various viewpoints on multicultural education, necessary definitions, facts on the reality of our and other nations' growing diversity and what this means for education, and how educators can transform curriculum into authentic multicultural curriculum.

Booher-Jennings, J. (2005). Below the bubble: Educational triage and the Texas accountability system. American Educational Research Journal, 42, 231-268. Retrieved from http://academic.research.microsoft.com/Paper/2776748.aspx

This article uses two dominant traditions in the organizational study of schools—the neoinstitutional and faculty workplace approaches—to explain an urban elementary school’s response to the Texas Accountability System. The findings indicate that teachers, guided by an institutional logic, sought to create the appearance of test score improvement by using a constellation of “educational triage” practices. Educational triage was manifest in the diversion of resources to students believed to be on the threshold of passing the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (“bubble kids”) and to “accountable” students (those affecting the school’s accountability rating).

Castle, S., Deniz, C., & Tortora, M. (2005).  Flexible grouping and student learning in a high-needs school. Education & Urban Society, 37(2), 139-150.  Retrieved from             
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.seattleu.edu/login.aspxdirect=true&db=a9h&AN=15869483&site=ehost-live

The study focused on the impact of flexible grouping on student learning during a period of time in a high-needs school. The study tracked nontransient, below-goal elementary students on multiple literacy assessments during a 5-year flexible grouping implementation. The results support the use of flexible grouping to improve student learning for below-goal students without the potentially negative effects of ability grouping.

Choice Media Ed Reform Minute (2013, June 12). Ability grouping on the rise in classrooms. Choice Media. Retrieved from 
http://www.cee.org/sites/default/files/media-pdfs/podcast-Joann-interview.pdf

Chorzempa, B., & Graham, S. (2006). Primary-grade teachers’ use of within-class ability grouping in reading. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 529-541. Retrieved from 
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A random sample of primary-grade teachers from across the United States was surveyed about within-class ability grouping in reading. Most teachers reported that they used within-class ability grouping because it helps them meet their students' instructional needs, although there were some reasons for concern. For instance, students in lower ability groups spend more time involved in non-instructional activities, are less likely to be asked critical comprehension questions, and are given fewer opportunities to select their own reading material.

Condron, D. J. (2008). An early start: Skill grouping and unequal reading gains in the elementary years. Sociological Quarterly, 49(2), 363-394. Retrieved from 
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.seattleu.edu/login.aspxdirect=true&db=a9h&AN=31557535&site=ehost-live

Drawing on data from the first- and third-grade waves of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort, this study used propensity score matching techniques to estimate the impact of low, middle, and high group placement on reading gains relative to nongrouped instruction. Findings suggest that high-grouped students learn more, and low-grouped students learn less, than comparable nongrouped students. These analyses, which significantly lessen the extent to which selection into groups may bias results, add strong evidence to the view that within-classroom skill grouping in the early elementary years promotes unequal reading gains compared to nongrouped instruction.

Devine, D. (1993) A study of reading ability groups: primary school children's experiences and views.  Irish Educational Studies, 12, 134-142.

Downey, B., Von Hippel, P., & Groh, B. (2004). Are schools the great equalizer? Cognitive inequality during the summer months and the school year. American Sociological review, 69, 613-635. Retrieved from 
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.seattleu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=15542464&site=ehost-live

Everett, J. (2013). Intergroup contact theory: Past, present and future. The Inquisitive Mind. Retrieved from 
http://www.in-mind.org/article/intergroup-contact-theory-past-present-and-future

The intergroup contact hypothesis was first proposed by Allport (1954), who suggested that positive effects of intergroup contact occur in contact situations characterized by four key conditions: equal status, intergroup cooperation, common goals, and support by social and institutional authorities. In the years since Allport’s initial intergroup contact hypothesis, much research has been devoted to expanding and exploring his contact hypothesis. This article reviews some of the vast literature on the role of contact in reducing prejudice and it looks at its success, mediating factors, and recent theoretical extensions.

Ford, M. (2005). Differentiation through flexible grouping: Successfully reaching all readers. Learning Point Associates. Retrieved from http://www.learningpt.org/pdfs/literacy/flexibleGrouping.pdf

This article gives a definition and rationale for using flexible grouping (as opposed to traditional ability grouping) and gives various examples of and practical strategies for differentiating instruction while using flexible groups.  It closes with references and resources.  This is a great resource for classroom teachers.

Fryer, R. G., Jr., & Levitt, S., D. (2006). The black-white test score gap through third grade. American Law and Economics Review, 8 (2), 249-81.

Hallam, S., Iresona, J., & Davies, J. (2004). Primary pupils' experiences of different types of grouping in school. British Educational Research Journal, 30(4), 515-533. Retrieved from 
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Hallinan, M.T., & Sorenson, A.B. (1985). Class size, ability group size, and student achievement. American Journal of Education, 94, 71-89.

Hallinan, M. T., & Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Opportunities and constraints: Black-white differences in the formation of interracial friendships. Child Development, 58(5), 1358. Retrieved from 
http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.seattleu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=8591331&site=ehost-live

This article examines the effects of classroom characteristics on the interracial friendliness of students in desegregated classrooms. The effects of classroom climate, organization of instruction, and class racial composition on the likelihood of cross-race friendships are observed in longitudinal data from 455 students in 16 fourth- through seventh-grade desegregated classrooms. The results show that ability grouping influences the interracial sociability of white students more than that of blacks, while the academic status of peers affects the cross-race friendships of blacks more than of whites. Race differences in the effects of classroom climate on interracial friendships are also observed.

Hallinan, M. T. (1996). Track mobility in secondary school. Social Forces, 74(3), 983-1002. Retrieved from 
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Helf, S., Cooke, N. L., & Flowers, C. P. (2008). Effects of two grouping conditions on students who are at risk for reading failure. Preventing School Failure, 53(2), 113-128.

Hoffer, T. (1992). Middle school ability grouping and student achievement in science and mathematics. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 14, 205-227.

Holmes, M. (2012).  Shhh! You Can’t Talk About That!  Retrieved from http://talkingraceinschools.blogspot.com/

Blog discussing why racial diversity is not commonly and openly discussed in schools, the pros and cons of open racial dialogue, and different perspectives on the issue.  It includes various research, multimedia, teacher tips, and resources.  This blog is especially valuable as a starting point for educators, families, or anyone who would like to increase their awareness of racism, Whiteness issues, and other multicultural issues still prevalent in schools and society today.  Once this awareness is there, then the issues brought up about ability-grouping will be more tangible.

Jencks, C. & Phillips, M. (1998). The black-white test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Krupnick, A. (2013, September 27). Making education personal: Ability grouping or blended learning? Parent Map. Retrieved from 
http://www.parentmap.com/article/making-education-personal-ability-grouping-or-blended-learning

Lleras, C., & Rangel, C. (2009). Ability grouping practices in elementary school and African American/Hispanic achievement. American Journal Of Education, 115(2), 279-304. Retrieved from 
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This study examines the impact of ability grouping practices on the achievement gains among African Americans and Hispanics during elementary school. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, the results strongly support the differential effects hypothesis of ability grouping. That is, students who are lower grouped for reading instruction learn substantially less, and higher-grouped students learn slightly more over the first few years of school, compared to students who are in classrooms that do not practice grouping.

Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Poulsen, C., Chambers, B., & d’Apollonia, S. (1996). Within-class grouping: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66, 423-458.

Loveless, T. (2013, March 18). The Resurgence of Ability Grouping and Persistence of Tracking.  Brookings. Retrieved from 
http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2013/03/18-tracking-ability-grouping-loveless

MacIntyre, H., & Ireson, J. (2002). Within-class ability grouping: Placement of pupils in groups and self-concept. British Educational Research Journal, 28(2), 249-263. Retrieved from 
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McCoach, D., O'Connell, A. A., & Levitt, H. (2006). Ability grouping across kindergarten using an early childhood longitudinal study. Journal Of Educational Research, 99(6), 339-346.

National Education Association (NEA). (2010). Research Spotlight on Academic Ability Grouping.  Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/tools/16899.htm

Nelson, T. L. (2001). Tracking, parental education, and child literacy development: How ability grouping perpetuates poor education attainment within minority communities. Georgetown Journal On Poverty Law & Policy, 8(2), 363. Retrieved from 
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This study examines the purpose and developments of ability grouping on schools in the United States. It also examines the effects of past segregation and discrimination of education on African Americans, discusses education equality, and examines the impact of ability grouping on the self-esteem of a child.

Olsen, P. (n.d.). Ability grouping in education: Pros, cons, & quiz. Education Portal. Retrieved from 
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/ability-grouping-in-education-pros-cons-quiz.html#lesson

Petrilli, M. (2011, October 2). Unrealized potential. The New York Times: The Opinion Pages: Room for Debate. Retrieved from 
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/10/02/are-top-students-getting-short-shrift/unrealized-potential

Plous, S. (2012). Understanding prejudice: Bibliography of children’s books. Retrieved from http://www.understandingprejudice.org/readroom/kidsbib.htm

This page has links to children's books on diversity, multiculturalism, prejudice reduction, and related topics.  These books would be great conversation starters for students and teachers.  The books are arranged by age level from baby to over 13.

Reuman. (1989). How social comparison mediates the relation between ability-grouping practices and students’ expectancies in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 178-189.

Rodkin, P. C., Wilson, T., & Ahn, H. J. (2007). Social integration between African American and European American children in majority black, majority white, multicultural classrooms. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2007(118), 25-42.

Routman, R. (2003). Reading essentials: The specifics you need to teach reading well. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Ruben, J. (2004, November 28). Are schools cheating poor learners? Los Angeles Times, p. B1. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2004/nov/28/local/me-behind28

Smith, A. E., & Jussim, L. (1998). Self-fulfilling prophecies, perceptual biases, and accuracy at the individual and group levels. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 34(6), 530. Retrieved from 
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Tach, L., & Farkas, G. (2006). Learning-related behaviors, cognitive skills, and ability grouping when schooling begins. Social Science Research, 35(4), 1048-1079.

Teaching Diverse Students Initiative (TDSI). Teaching Tolerance: A Project of the Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/tdsi/

Undertaken by Teaching Tolerance, in partnership with the National Education Association, the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, prominent scholars and excellent teachers, TDSi offers a suite of free online professional development tools designed to help educators improve their skills in working across lines of race and ethnicity.

TDSi is embedded within a larger framework of best practices for teachers. Through the TDSi tools, educators can learn about and get the tools needed to address issues and concepts surrounding flexible heterogeneous grouping, culturally responsive pedagogy and collaborative problem solving between teachers and administrators.

Teaching Tolerance: A Project of the Southern Poverty Law Center. (2014). Retrieved from www.tolerance.org

Teaching Tolerance is dedicated to reducing prejudice, improving intergroup relations and supporting equitable school experiences for our nation's children.  They provide free educational materials to teachers and other school practitioners in the U.S. and Canada including a self-titled magazine that is sent to 450,000 educators twice annually and free curricular kits. They have published some articles about and provided curriculum tips and ideas for teachers on grouping strategies and cross-racial relationships. 

Teaching Tolerance. (n.d.). Test yourself for hidden bias. Retrieved from http://www.tolerance.org/activity/test-yourself-hidden-bias#.UyDbkk79t6I.blogger

Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Kouzekanani, K., Bryant, D., Dickson, S., & Blozis, S. A. (2003). Reading instruction grouping for students with reading difficulties. Remedial & Special Education, 24(5), 301-315.

WISE: Working to Improve Schools and Education. Ability grouping, tracking & alternatives. Ithaca College. Retrieved from http://www.ithaca.edu/wise/ability/

The purpose of this website is to provide anyone interested in improving U.S. schools with valuable information and resources about important issues in education and teaching…It focuses on analysis of contemporary issues in education, with particular emphasis on issues of equity, diversity, multicultural education, and the development of schools more effective for ALL students and families. The purpose…is to help students interested in education and teaching develop greater sociocultural understanding and skill and a critically reflective framework and knowledge base for making informed decisions about issues of educational policy and practice.  The site has a page with numerous links to other sites and organizations working specifically on the issues surrounding ability grouping, many of which include the issues surrounding within-class ability grouping.

Yee, V. (2013, June 9). Grouping students by ability regains favor in the classroom. The New York Times.  Retrieved from 
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/10/education/grouping-students-by-ability-regains-favor-with-educators.html?_r=2&

Young, T. (1990). Alternatives to ability grouping in reading. Reading Horizons, 169-183. Retrieved from 
http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1666&context=reading_horizons